Page last edited: 27/08/2010

Gender and Subject Choice: Explanations

[ Click here and follow two further links for a very detailed technical paper from the DCFS: Gender and Education: The Evidence on Pupils in England. This paper provides details of long term trends in enrolments for individual subjects.]

Before my discussion of possible explanations for gender differences in subject choice I shall first extract some of the main data from the previous document on Gender and Subject Choice: Some Data

You may also click here for a basic summary of this document

Gender, GCSE Subject Choice and Results in 2009/10.

English , Mathematics and Sciences are compulsory GCSE subjects although not all students who enrol for these subjects will necessarily be entered for the GCSE examinations . Boys are slightly more likely that girls to attempt these examinations although there are larger gender differences [in favour of boys] in entry rates for individual science subjects.
In summary boys are more likely than girls to attempt Single Sciences, Design and Technology [where there are also significant stereotypical gender differences in option choices], Information Technology, Business Studies, Geography and PE.
In summary girls are more likely than boys to attempt Home Economics, Social Studies, Art and Design, English Literature, Drama, Media/Film/TV Studies and RE.
Click here for a publication from Joint Qualifications Council containing provisional data on gender differences in subject choices [scroll down to page 9 for a useful diagram] and examination pass rates in 2010. Click here for fuller Joint Qualifications Council data as provided in the Guardian's Data Blog.
The girls' A*-C pass rates exceeds that of boys almost every subject although the gender differences in pass rates vary significantly from subject to subject . For example girls have typically outperformed boys in recent years by 7-15% in English, Design and Technology, Modern Foreign Languages, Art and Design and English Literature but only by narrow margins in Mathematics, Core Sciences and Chemistry
However in 2010 males outperformed females narrowly in Mathematics, Physics and Biology. It has been suggested that the ending of GCSE Mathematics coursework for the 20009 and 2010 cohorts helps to explain why males outperformed females in GCSE Mathematics in 2009 and 2010 whereas females had narrowly outperformed males in 2008 prior to the abolition of course work. However this conclusion has attracted some criticism.
It is considered significant that Science entries increased significantly in 2010 and that Modern Languages entries fell. Click here for Guardian coverage of this and other stories related to the 2010 GCSE Examination results.
Click here for a very useful analysis of trends in GCSE subject entries from GCSE and results from the BBC. Click here for BBC data on gender differences in results in individual subjects.

2. Gender, GCE Advanced Level Subject Choice and Results in 2008/9 and 2009/2010

GCE Advanced Level 2007/2008 and 2009/10; 10 most Popular Subjects in order of Popularity for Females and Males 2007/2008 and 2009/10

Females 07/08	Females 09/10	Males07/08	Males09/10
English	English	Mathematics	Mathematics
Psychology	Psychology	General Studies	English
General Studies	Art and Design	English	Biology
Biology	Biology	History	Physics
Art and Design	General Studies	Biology	History
Mathematics	Mathematics	Physics	Chemistry
History	History	Chemistry	General Studies
Sociology	Sociology	Business Studies	Business Studies
Chemistry	Chemistry	Geography	Geography
Media/Film/TV Studies	Media/Film/TV Studies	P.E.	Economics

Between 2007/08 and 2009/10 patterns of subject choice remained fairly constant: the main changes were that General Studies became less popular among both females and males; that Biology became more popular for males; and that Economics replaced PE as the 10th most popular choice for males. Also both Media/Film/TV studies and Psychology attracted more male entrants than PE in 2009/2010.

However we should also consider the relative popularity of subjects among female and male students irrespective of the total numbers of students opting for the different subjects. For example Performing/Expressive Arts and Computing do not appear in the above table because they are chosen by relatively limited numbers of students but 85.5% and 14.5% of Performing/Expressive Arts students are female and male respectively and 91.1% and 8.9% of Computing Students are male and female respectively.

Viewed in this way the following 13 subjects are most likely to contain female students: Performing/Expressive Arts [85.5%F: 14.5%M], Sociology, Psychology, Art and Design Subjects, Communication Studies, English, French, Religious Studies, Drama, Spanish, Critical Thinking , Law., German [59.7%F: 40.3%M]
Similarly the following 12 subjects are most likely to contain male students: Computing [91.1% M: 8.9% F], Physics, Science Subjects, Mathematics, Economics, Sport/PE, ICT, Music, Mathematics, Business Studies, Political Studies and Technology subjects[56.3% M: 43.7%F].
The following subjects contain a fairly equal mixture of female and male students: Geography[54.1%M: 45.9%F}, Chemistry, History, General Studies, Media/TV /Film Studies, Classical Subjects, Other Modern Languages, Biology [56.4% F:43.6%M.]

Possible Explanations of Gender Differences in Subject Choice: [Mainly related to GCSE subject choice}

Biologically based Arguments

It has been argued in the past that females' relatively limited educational achievements could be explained in terms of their relatively low innate intelligence which is an argument which was widely believed despite the fact that it never contained a shred of scientific credibility. As females came to outperform males in all areas of the education system it was noted that they did so especially in Arts and Humanities whereas gender differences in examination results were much smaller in Mathematics and Sciences and this led to claims that the gendered variations in examination results in different subjects might be explicable in terms of gender differences in the structures and operations of the brain which enabled females to develop superior linguistic skills. I am not qualified to evaluate such biologically based theories but can state, from a sociological point of view, that if girls do , on average, have superior linguistic skills , this may be explained at least partly by the fact that females are more likely to have been socialised by their mothers and/or first school teachers to see reading as a "feminine activity" and socialised also to recognise that it was mainly men who were likely to secure employment in scientifically based subjects. Meanwhile it could be suggested that many traditionally minded fathers may allegedly wish to socialise their sons to play football and undertake other stereotypically masculine leisure pursuits rather than to indulge in the detailed study of English Literature which is seen as a stereotypically feminine activity. I shall be concentrating here on the sociological explanations for gender differences in subject choice.

2. Sociologically based Arguments

By the 1970s there was an increasing trend for married women to return to employment especially once their children reached school age but there were still powerful gender differences in socialisation which operated in the home, the school, the peer group, the mass media and in society generally to encourage both boys and girls to accept traditional images of femininity and masculinity in general and in particular to define many occupations as primarily male or primarily female occupations all of which affected male and female affected career choices and therefore subject choices. Thus writing in 1976 Sue Sharpe argued on the basis of a study of 15-16 year old girls that they were not especially interested in long term careers in any case but also that they had rejected many potential careers because they regarded them as traditional male careers and therefore inconsistent with their image of femininity and/or because they believed that employers would in any case be unlikely to employ females in such positions. [However by the time that Sue Sharpe repeated her study in 1994 female employment opportunities had improved, traditional gender differences in socialisation were weakening and she found that girls expressed more interest in careers in general and in a wider variety of careers and these conclusions are confirmed by the subsequent findings of Becky Francis' [2000] study mentioned below.]

At this time many girls would have expected to take up employment in shops or as routine clerical workers or as light assembly workers and to return to this type of employment after marriage [although an increasing minority minority of females took up professional work in occupations such as teaching, nursing and social work] Consequently many girls may have recognised that competence in literacy and numeracy could improve their employment prospects and their expected futures as housewives and mothers would have encouraged them to opt for Domestic Science and Biology but they were very unlikely to choose to study subjects such as woodwork, metalwork and technical drawing nor to opt for sciences other than Biology , nor , in most cases to consider the possibility of a professional career. Meanwhile career options were much wider for male students [especially for middle class male students] and they were more likely to opt for scientific and technical subjects and for the handicraft subjects which would prepare them for entry into traditional male skilled manual work.

It is likely that traditional gender differences in socialisation have been [and remain] especially powerful in traditionally organised families but in any case it was argued by Teresa Grafton and co. [1987] on the basis of a study of one co-educational comprehensive school in the South West of England that the schools themselves in the 1980s were encouraging traditional gender differences in subject choices which reflected the gender division of labour in society generally. There were limited places for boys and girls in non-traditional craft options and subject advice given by teachers reflected traditional views as to the "appropriate" gender division of labour. However, as would be expected, the researchers found that subject choices were affected also by the gender division of labour in the home and in the labour market.

Initiatives such as GIST [Girls into Science and Technology] and WISE [Women into Science and Engineering] were begun in the late 1970s and early 1980s in an attempt to encourage female students to study Science and Engineering subjects although the effectiveness of these initiatives should not be overstated. In the GIST programme[1979-1983] researchers worked in 10 co-educational comprehensive schools to try to raise teacher awareness of equal opportunities issues and to encourage more girls to opt for Sciences at GCE and CSE levels. The final report concluded that the initiative had improved girls' attitudes to Science and Technology ; that it had had little impact on subject choice; and that the teachers, although sympathetic to the programme, said that they had not modified their teaching practices substantially as a result. However the GIST initiative could be regarded as an early pilot programme which has encouraged many subsequent equal opportunities initiatives. The WISE programme was set up as a national initiative by the Equal Opportunities Commission and the Engineering Council and was designed to raise awareness of the need for more female scientists and technologists and to emphasise the attractiveness for girls, young women and older women seeking to retrain of careers in Science and Technology. WISE is still in operation and its website points out that whereas about 20 years ago only 4% of Engineering undergraduates were women the figure for 2009 was 13%. Obviously WISE itself may well have contributed to this increase at least to some extent.

Alison Kelly [1987] attempted to analyse why female students were less likely to opt for sciences other than Biology. She argued that girls often felt at a disadvantage in Science lessons because textbooks and teaching examples tended to reflect male rather than female interests; because science teachers tended to be male and to relate more easily to boys; and because boys tended to monopolise equipment and class discussion. These factors could combine to cause an ongoing decline in girls' enrolments in Sciences other than Biology but they did not apply to Biology which was seen by girls as more relevant to their preferred career options, for example as nurses, and to their likely future as housewives and mothers.

Following the introduction of the National Curriculum in 1998 English Maths and Science all became compulsory subjects at GCSE level and male and female entries for these subjects have subsequently been very similar. However pupils in some schools may be given the options to study Single Science GCSEs and subjects such as Information Technology and Economics. Anne Colley [1998] argued that despite the introduction of the National Curriculum girls were still being dissuaded from opting for Science and Technology subjects. Thus she claimed that the images of the instrumental male and the expressive female [suggested, as you will doubtless recall, by Talcott Parsons in the 1950s] still exercise a considerable hold over male and female attitudes ; that Computing [or Information Technology] especially continues to be taught in ways more appealing to boys than girls and that girls are more successful in Maths and Science when they are taught in all-girls schools or in single sex classes in coeducational schools. If so this clearly points to a need for further improvements in girls' opportunities when they are taught in mixed classes. {More recent data, for 2010, show that boys are still far more likely than girls to opt for Economics, Information Technology and the Single Science GCSE subjects; Biology, Chemistry and Physics.]

In her study[2000] of 50 girls and 50 boys in years 10 and 11 at 3 London comprehensive schools Becky Francis provides evidence of both potential change and continuity in relation to subject choice. Thus the girls in Becky Francis' sample express interest in a relatively wide variety of careers; are relatively unlikely to favour stereotypical female careers such as nurse, clerical worker or air hostess ; are quite likely to express interest in careers usually associated with men and very likely to express interest in careers for which further education, higher education and a degree will be necessary. However broadly traditional patterns of career choice do remain in that the girls are more likely to choose careers associated with the Humanities or the caring professions than with Science, Mathematics or Engineering.

Click here for a summary of a recent [2009] report from the Equality and Human Rights Commission which suggests that Becky Francis' research may perhaps understate the extent of ongoing significant gender differences in perceived career prospects and calls for better advice on subject choice and career choice.

Girls therefore were traditionally dissuaded from Science, Engineering and Metalwork/Woodwork/ Technical Drawing and it may well be the case that as Anne Colley suggests such discrimination continues in relation to Single Science GCSEs and Information Technology. However girls have also traditionally shown especial interest in Arts and Humanities subjects. It has been argued in this respect that they have been socialised at an early age [by their mothers and mainly female First and Middle School teachers] to perceive reading as a relatively feminine pastime and also because they saw good language skills as especially relevant to office and clerical work which was the preferred occupation for many girls leaving school at 15-16. It may be also that female relative success in English may be linked to the conventional perception of willingness to discuss personal issues as a feminine trait and female relative success in English may also help to explain why females are more likely than males to opt for subjects such as Modern Foreign Languages, Religious studies and Sociology where discursive skills are especially important.

Similarly the perception of Maths, Sciences and technical subjects as "masculine" subjects may help to explain why the male-female performance gap is smaller in Maths and the Sciences than in Arts and Humanities subjects and also why males are more likely than females to opt for Computer studies, Information Technology or Economics while the popularity among males of PE also links with traditional perceptions of gender roles.[ Notice that in 2010 males narrowly outperformed females in GCSE Mathematics, Biology and Physics Examinations.]

Nevertheless we must note also that traditional gender differences in socialisation may now be smaller, especially perhaps in the case of academically successful [and mainly but not entirely middle class students] , that some attempts are being in schools to undermine traditional patterns of subject choice , that it has always been well known that good qualifications in Arts and Humanities as well as the sciences can open up good career opportunities for boys as well as girls and that an increasing number of females are now employed in occupations such as Medicine, Law and Business administration which were once dominated by men. These factors would help to explain any decline in traditional gender differences in subject choice at GCSE level. We may note in this respect that gender differences in entries for Single Science GCSEs in Biology , Chemistry and Physics are significant but not as great as in Technology subjects and Economics.

Gender Differences in Subject Choice: Vocational Qualifications

It is well known that working class male and female students are more likely to be unsuccessful at GCSE level. These students are perhaps also more likely to have been socialised into traditional gender roles and to believe [correctly] that their employment prospects ,although limited, are best in traditional male and female occupations. Many relatively unsuccessful female students may therefore opt for subjects such as Domestic Science or Health Care partly because they do not infringe traditional views of femininity, partly because of better employment prospects in these areas and partly because the skills gained are seen as being useful for their future roles as housewives/mothers. Relatively unsuccessful boys are likely to opt for Computing and Technology options for much the same reasons.

Gender differences in choice of Apprenticeship schemes are very marked and can surely be explained in terms of the ongoing strength of traditional socialisation processes and continuing gender differences in employment opportunities. It could indeed be argued that choices of such schemes have much more power than do A level and Degree level subject choices to confirm or undermine traditional perceptions of femininity and masculinity. For example opting for a bricklaying apprenticeship is more likely than opting for a Physics degree to undermine a girl's traditional sense of here femininity ...if she has one.

The Equal Opportunities Site provides information on Modern Apprenticeships in 2002/3 which indicates the very high proportions of females opting for apprenticeships in the following sectors: early years and education, Hairdressing, Travel Services and Health and Social Care and the similarly large proportions of males opting for apprenticeships in the following sectors: It and Electronic Services, Engineering, Construction, Motor Industry, Plumbing and Electro-Technical services. Click here for good , but unfortunately slightly dated information on Gender issues from the Equal Opportunities Commission. Pages 4-9 refer to Gender and Education .

There are also significant gender differences in Applied GCE Advanced Level Subject Choice. Thus the best subscribed Applied Advanced Level courses in 2008/9 were Business [M 3735: F 3479],Health and Social Care [M 203 F 4763], and ICT[ M6869: F 4360].

Gender Differences in Subject Choice : GCE Advanced Level and Degree Level

With regard to Subject Choices at Advanced and Degree levels it is important to note the following points .

Girls' relative GCSE pass rates are much higher in English and Humanities subjects than in Mathematics and Science and one would expect more females than males Males to opt for Arts and Humanities at Advanced level and Degree level because Girls' relative pass rates are higher than boys' at GCSE level in these subjects, because girls' may have developed a greater interest in the issues dealt with in these subjects , because if Anne Colley is to be believed, teaching of Maths, Sciences and Computer Science subjects continues to disadvantage female students and because career opportunities for well qualified females are still more favourable in careers related to the Arts and Humanities.
For similar reasons boys are drawn more to Mathematics and the Sciences at Advanced and Degree level.
However it is likely that, at least to some extent some subjects are decreasingly likely to be seen as specifically "female " or " male" subjects at Advanced and Degree level. It possible that in the Sciences textbook materials and teacher attitudes are less male centred than in the 1980s partly as a result of the initiatives such as GIST and WISE which have campaigned for the introduction of measures to improve the attractiveness of Science, Engineering and Technology to girls [although as mentioned above the effectiveness of these initiatives should not be overstated] and there are now better career opportunities for females in areas such as Law, Medicine and Business Administration while there have always been good career opportunities for males well qualified in Arts and Humanities.
As a result gender differences in some subject choices at Advanced are declining although some significant differences remain.

Gender Differences in Subject Choice at Degree Level

The above patterns of A level subject choice are reflected also at University level where Males are also especially likely to study science-based Engineering degree courses and females are especially likely to opt for "courses allied to Medicine" and Education.
You may click here to access the data which appeared in the previous document

Explanations of Gender Differences in Subject Choice: A Brief Summary

Gender differences in subject choice may be explained in general terms by the following interconnected factors :

Gender differences in socialisation operating via the family, the school, the peer group, the local community and the mass media.

Overall perceptions of particular subjects as primarily "male" or "female " subjects.

Apparent gender differences in ability in different subjects which themselves may be explicable in terms of gender differences in socialisation although some analysts have argued for a biological basis for gender differences in subject abilities.

Processes and teaching styles operative in schools which in the past have encouraged females toward Arts and Humanities and discouraged them from choosing Maths, Science and Computing while encouraging boys to opt for Maths, science and Computing in preference to Arts and Humanities subjects.

The existence of some single sex schools and the introduction of some single sex classes in co-educational schools may have some bearing on subject choice.

Gender differences in employment opportunities

The significance of these factors may have altered significantly for some students but not others.

Thus recently several factors have combined to encourage more females to enhance their own career prospects rather than to assume that their most significant future roles were likely to be as housewives and mothers and this has encouraged them to concentrate much more on improving their overall educational qualifications and also to choose subjects which would prepare them for a wider range of career opportunities than was available to them than in the past. All pupils must now study English , Maths and Sciences as compulsory subjects at GCSE level but there are still some fairly significant gender differences in option choices at GCSE Level. Also in exercising the greater choices that exist at Advanced level and Degree level, there may be some slight increasing tendency for both females and males to be influenced less by stereotypical views of particular subjects although some very significant gender differences in subject choice remain at Advanced Level and Degree levels.

Thus although female students are still far more likely than male students to opt for Arts and Humanities subjects at Advanced` level and Degree level they are also more likely than males to opt for Law at Advanced Level and Degree level and more likely than males to opt for Medicine at Degree level. .Similarly although greater numbers of males have traditionally been drawn more to Mathematics, Science and Technical subjects it has long been widely there have always been good career opportunities for males well qualified in Arts and Humanities subjects which explains why a significant minority of males opt for these subjects rather than Maths, Sciences and Engineering at Advanced and/or Degree level.

However some very significant gender differences in subject choice at Degree level remain. Females are far more likely than males to opt for "Subjects related to Medicine" and for Education Degrees and males are far more likely than females to opt for Engineering and Computer Studies suggesting that these subjects are still seen primarily as "female" and "male" subjects respectively.

Also it may be that relatively unsuccessful students , especially living in traditional working class areas, are more likely to be subject to traditional processes of socialisation and to feel that their employment opportunities are still limited to traditional "Male" and "Female" occupations all of which may encourage more traditional subject choices especially, for example, with regard to apprenticeship schemes.

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